Despite an open border, shared culture, religious ties and strong people-to-people connectivity, governance of transboundary water resources has often led to diplomatic conflicts between India and Nepal.

It is not unusual for hydro-development projects between the two to run into delays or opposition, despite great domestic need for water and electricity in both countries.

Cooperation between the two sides on shared rivers and how the inadequacies of international water laws manifest themselves in bilateral negotiations on water governance.

Governance of transboundary water resources originating in the Himalayas and flowing through Nepal into India has been a source of bitterness and animosity between the two states.

The Koshi and Gandak treaties signed by India and Nepal in 1954 and 1959, respectively, had to be amended and revised in 1966 and 1964, respectively, following protests by Nepal.

The provisions of the Mahakali Treaty, signed in 1996 and ratified by the Nepali Parliament in the same year, have not yet been realized. Despite an open border, strong people-to-people connections, and a sense of shared culture, religion and heritage, tensions over transboundary waters have often led to widespread hostility against India among Nepali citizens, and water is also cited as the reason for ruptures in the bilateral relations.